èIntroduction
The Indian
national movement was undoubtedly one of the biggest mass movements modern Society has ever
seen, It was a movement which galvanized
millions of People of all classes and ideologies
into political action and brought to its knees a mighty colonial empire. Consequently, along with the
British, French, Russian, Chine, Cuban
and Vietnam
movements in
societies that broadly function within the confines of the rule of law, and are characterized by a
democratic and basically civil
libertarian polity. But it is also relevant to other
societies. We
know for a fact that even Lech Walesa consciously tried to incorporate elements of Gandhian
strategy in the Solidarity Movement in Poland
The Indian
national movement, in fact, provides the only actual historical example of a semi-democratic
or democratic type of political
structure being successfully replaced or transformed.
It is the
only movement where the broadly Gramscian theoretical perspective of position was successfully
practiced a war in a single historical
moment of revolution, but through prolonged
popular
struggle on a moral, political and ideological level; where reserves of counter hegemony were built up
over the years through progressive
stages; where the phases of struggle alternated
with ‘passive’ phases.
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èThe East India Company had established its
control over almost all parts of
The Revolt
of 1857, which was called a Sepoy Mutiny by British historians and their
imitators in India but described as "the First War of Indian
Independence" by many Indian historians, shook the British authority in
India from its very foundations.
The Revolt
of 1857, an unsuccessful but heroic effort to eliminate foreign rule, had
begun. The capture of
On
Within
a month of the capture of
Queen
(a) A
viceroy was appointed in
(b) Princes
were given the right to adopt a son (abolition of Doctrine of Lapse)
(c)
Treaties were honored
(d)
Religious freedom was restored and equality treatment promised to Indians
The
Proclamation was called the 'Magna Carta of Indian Liberty'. The British rule
in
Although
the British succeeded in suppressing the 1857 Revolt, they could
not stop the growth of political awareness in
The aims of
the Congress were: promotion of friendship and cooperation amongst the
nationalist political workers from the different parts of the country; the
eradication of racial, creed or provincial prejudices and promotion of
national unity; formulation of popular demands and their presentation before
the Government; and, most important of all, the training and organization of
public opinion in the country.
On
In 1906,
All India Muslim League was set up under the leadership of Aga
Khan, Nawab Salimullab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. The League
supported the partition of
The Swadeshi
movement has its genesis in the anti-partition movement which was
started to oppose the British decision to divide
The Indian
National Congress took up the Swadeshi call in Benaras Session, 1905,
presided over by G.K. Gokhale, supported the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement of
Bengal, Militant Nationalism spearheaded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin
Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh was, however, in favor of
extending the movement of the rest of India and carrying it beyond the
programme of just Swadeshi and boycott of goods to full-fledged political
mass struggle.
Morley-Minto
Reforms were introduced in 1909 during the period when Lord Minto was the Governor-General
of India. The reforms envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims besides
other constitutional measures. The government thereby sought to create a rift
within the Congress on the one hand by winning the support of the moderates,
and on the
other, to win favor of Muslims against Bindus. To achieve the latter
objective, the reforms introduced the system of separate electorates under
which Muslims could only vote for Muslim candidates. This was done to
encourage the notion that the political, economic and cultural interests of
Hindus and Muslims were separate and not common. Indian political leaders
were however dissatisfied by these reforms.
An
important step forward in achieving Hindu-Muslim unity was the
Lucknow Pact 1916. AntiBritish feelings were generated among the Muslims
following a war between
Hindu-Muslim
unity weakened the British attitude and forced the government to announce its
future policy. In 1916 a British policy was announced whereby association of
Indians was increased and there was to be a gradual development of local
self-governing institutions.
Dr. Annie
Besant, inspired by the Irish rebellion, started a Home Rule
Movement in
Mahatma
Gandhi dominated the Indian political scene from 19181947. This period of
the Indian National Congress is also referred to as the Gandhian Era. It was
the most intense and eventful phase of
The Caliph,
Sultan of Turkey, was looked upon by the Muslims as their religious head.
During the First World War, when the safety and the welfare of
While
trying to appease Indians, the British Government was following a policy of
repression. Throughout the First World War, repression of freedom fighters
had continued. The revolutionaries had been hunted down, hanged or imprisoned.
The Government now decided to arm itself with more powers in order to
suppress the freedom fighters. In March 1919, it passed the Rowlatt Act.
This Act authorized the government to detain any person without trial. The
Rowlatt Act came like a sudden blow. The Indians had been promised extension
of democracy during the war. They felt humiliated and were filled with anger
when they found that their civil liberties were going to be curtailed still
further. Unrest gripped the country and a powerful agitation against the Act
started. During this agitation, Gandhiji took command of the nationalist
movement. March and April 1919 witnessed a remarkable political awakening in
the country. There were hartals, strikes and demonstrations at various
places. The slogans of Hindu-Muslim unity filled the air.
The
Government was bent on suppressing the mass agitation. In
With the
Congress support of the Khilafat movement, Hindu-Muslim unity was achieved
which encouraged Gandhiji to launch his non-violent, non-cooperation
movement. At the Calcutta Session in September 1920, the Congress resolved in
favour of the non-violent, non-cooperation movement and defined Swaraj as its
ultimate aim. The movement envisaged: (i) Surrender of titles and honorary
officers; (ii) Resignation from nominated offices and posts in the local
bodies; (iii) Refusal to attend government darbars and official functions and
boycott of British courts by the lawyers; (iv) Refusal of general public to
offer themselves for military and other government jobs, and boycott of
foreign goods, etc.
The
non-cooperation movement also saw picketing of shops selling foreign cloth
and boycott of the foreign cloth by the followers of Gandhiji.
The
Congress session held at Ahmedabad in December 1921 decided to launch a Civil
Disobedience Movement while reiterating its stand on the non-violent, noncooperation
movement of which Gandhiji was appointed the leader. Before Gandhiji could
launch the Civil Disobedience Movement, a mob of countrymen at Chauri Chaura,
a place near
Despite
this Gandhiji was arrested and sentenced to six years imprisonment. The
Chauri Chaura incident convinced Gandhiji that the nation was not yet ready
for the mass-dis6bedience and he prevailed upon Congress Working Committee in
Bardoli on
Gandhiji's
decision to call off the agitation caused frustration among masses. His
decision came in for severe criticism from his colleagues like Motilal Nehru,
C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar, who organized the Swaraj Party. The
foundations of the 'Swaraj Party' were laid on
Under the
1919 Act, a statutory commission was to be appointed by the British
Government at the end of ten years from the passing of the Act to inquire
into the working of the system of government in the country and to recommend
further reforms. Thus the commission was scheduled to be appointed in 1929.
It was actually appointed two years earlier in 1927. The commission
consisted of seven members of the British Parliament. It was headed by Sir
John Simon. As all its members were British, the Congress decided to boycott
it. The Commission arrived in
Also called
the 'Salt Satyagraha'. To achieve the goal of complete independence, Gandhiji
launched another civil disobedience movement. Along with 79 followers,
Gandhiji started his famous march from Sabarmati Ashram on
Congress
leaders and workers had been busy at various levels with the hard
organizational tasks of enrolling volunteers and members, forming grassroot
Congress Committees, collecting funds, and touring villages and towns to
spread nationalist messages.
On
reaching the seashore on
Early in
1931 two moderate statesmen, Sapru and Jayakar, initiated efforts to bring
about rapprochement between Gandhiji and the government. Six meetings with
Viceroy Lord Irwin finally led to the signing of a pact between the two on
Gandhiji
and other leaders were released from jail as Irwin agreed to release most
political prisoners and to return the properties that had been seized by the
governments. The government also conceded the right to make the salt for
consumption of villages along the coast, and also the right to peaceful and
non-aggressive picketing. The Congress on its part, agreed to discontinue the
Civil Disobedience Movement and to participate in the next Round Table
Conference.
The Simon
Commission report submitted in 1930 formed the basis for the Government
of India Act 1935. The new Government of India Act received the royal assent
on
The
Act continued and extended all the existing features of the Indian constitution.
Popular representation, which went back to 1892, dyarchy and ministerial
responsibility, which dated from 1921, provincial autonomy, whose chequered
history went back to eighteenth century presidencies, communal
representation, which first received recognition in 1909, and the safeguards
devised in 1919, were all continued and in most cases extended. But in
addition there were certain new principles introduced. It provided for a
federal type of government. Thus, the act:
(a)
Introduced provincial autonomy
(b)
Abolished dyarchy in provinces I
(c) Made
ministers responsible to the legislative and federation at the centre
The
Act of 1935 was condemned by nearly all sections of Indian public opinion and
was unanimously rejected by the Congress. The Congress demanded instead, the
convening of a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise
to frame a constitution for an independent
On August
8, 1942, the Congress in its meeting at Bombay passed a resolution known as
'Quit India' resolution, whereby Gandhiji asked the British to quit India and
gave a call for 'Do or die' to his countrymen. On
The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The British Prime Minister, Lord Attlee, made a declaration on
On
The
Constituent Assembly met on
In March
1947, Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell. He announced his plan on
The Bill
containing the provisions of the Mountbatten Plan of
1947. The
Act laid down detailed measures for the partition of
In
accordance with the Indian Independence Act, 1947,
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